Week 3- The Gentlemen's Rhetoric: Walker, Delaney, and Garnett
After the slave trade was abolished by Britain, the American slave debate increased. The South was becoming more dependent on slaves to sustain their economy. Progressively, the North was abolishing slavery. Much like Equiano and Smith who used literature as vehicle to call attention to the evils of slavery, Walker, Delaney and Garnett spoke out in passionate addresses calling for an end of slavery. However, the means they suggested were much more radical. Walker and Garnett both called for slaves to rise up against their masters. Delaney spoke out for black nationalism and emigration.
Whether these men were viewed as heroes or radical revolutionaries depended largely upon geography. To Northerners in favor of ending slavery, the speeches were well received. In the South, the speeches brought death threats for the orators and movements from state legislatures making it illegal to teach slaves to read. The Southerners hoped that keeping the slaves from reading these impassioned arguments would prevent the uprisings that were being suggested. The few uprisings were met with excessive retribution. However, increasingly Southern slaves sought whatever means were available to leave the South. For some, this was escape through the Underground Railroad. Others sought to purchase their freedom and either flee to the North or attempt to return to Africa. The overriding challenge thought was that in the South, slavery was thriving and hopelessness was increasing.
When Jefferson and the Founding Fathers penned the famous words “we hold these truths self evident, that all men are created equal” they did not mean all men (Declaration of Independence). Had the Founding Fathers’ concept of natural rights included the slaves as well, Jefferson’s comments in 1801 stating the need to find a “receptacle” location for freed slaves would have been unnecessary (Guyatt 3). Because however prejudice and economics precluded freedom for all in the Constitution, most historians trace the concept of the American Colonization Society (ACS) to that letter written by Jefferson to Monroe. The motivation was not benevolent, but rather stemmed from concern about the increasing number of free blacks and the apparently insurmountable prejudice that stood in the way of equality for all races (Kahrl 1). By 1810, the idea of emigration was growing, and politics was creating a strange alliance. Slave owners in the upper South fearing rebellion sought to diminish the number of free blacks (Kahrl 5). Northern whites who viewed blacks as inferior wanted to reduce the freemen’s numbers fearing immoral behaviors (Kahrl 3). Philanthropic campaigners as well viewed emigration as a way to solve multiple problems (Kahrl 4). As the nation struggled to resolve the contradiction at the very core of her foundation, Rev. Robert Finley, a Presbyterian minister, founded the ACS as “a peaceful solution to the emerging crisis of slavery” (Kahrl 2). Unfortunately, the ACS did not prevent a civil war or produce large-scale emigration. The chief consequence of the ACS was the debate it sparked which contributed to the end of slavery in America.
In theory, the American Colonization Society would resolve the issue facing the new nation and correct a moral wrong committed by our nation. Ideologically this would duplicate the settlement of America; those persecuted would receive permission and aid to relocate to another continent and develop a colony based upon self-determined standards. Just as this idea had allowed the English to purge Great Britain of Catholics and Quakers, Americans could eliminate the contradictory growing free African American population living in a country dependent upon slavery for economic prosperity. Many important Americans including a past, present, and future presidents endorsed the ACS: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe and Lincoln (Jones 26). Kahrl concludes “supporters argued that the two races simply could not live together as equals in peace” and colonization avoided an inevitable conflict (9). Some Christians saw this as a way to evangelize Africa while others felt that it was only fair to return the kidnapped Africans to their homeland (Jones 26). However, the righteous motives of all these groups were not convincing enough to lead to success.
Initially it appeared the ACS would succeed. Ironically, an association of Chesapeake Maryland slaveholders provided the first funding and “ideological support” (Kahrl 7). The ACS then quickly received $100,000 from the federal government and large amounts of additional private aid (Kahrl 8). In 1820, the first ship sailed to West Africa (American Colonization Society). Southern Blacks subjected to intense prejudice “resigned themselves to colonization” as their only hope (Jones 26). Unfortunately, this first group of emigrants met with disaster when one-fourth of the group died of yellow fever within three weeks and the survivors reluctantly relocated to another locality (American Colonization Society). Colonization proved as difficult for the first Americans returning to Africa as it was for the first Europeans arriving in the Americas. At first, they fought with natives, but eventually were able to reach agreements for settlement (American Colonization Society). Perhaps if the initial emigrations had been more successful, the ensuing resistance in America would not have escalated.
At home, the ACS and idea of emigration met resistance from various groups of whites and colonization as a solution to this American problem only became a catalyst to greater unrest. The American Colonization Society was simply an unacceptable solution to the problem of slavery to numerous groups. Guyatt states “historians have usually regarded African colonization as straight forwardly racist, the culmination of attempts to fix blacks as permanently inferior and unequal to whites” (2). Abolitionists believed this was simply an attempt by slave owners to eliminate the problem of free slaves and thereby continue the policy of slavery. Some believed oppression by whites caused the problems of African Americans. Eliminating the institution of slavery created an environment for the race to develop. Therefore, the emigration of the freemen was unjust because it did not allow them the opportunities for advancement offered in America (Jones 26). Further, the institution of slavery would continue. As the easy solution of emigration met white resistance, free black voices joined the debate.
Free African American voices called for resistance to emigration. In 1827, Allen recanted his original support of the ACS in the Freeman’s Journal stating that as African-Americans had “watered with our tears and our blood” and because of this hard work American “is now our mother country” and homeland (Apap 9). Increasingly, Northern Free Blacks lead by leaders like Walker and Douglass believed that they were now Americans and that if they simply refused to leave they would be able to force the eventual end to slavery (Guyatt 26). Kahrl states:
David Walker, in his Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829),
condemned the ACS as nothing more than attempt by "a gang of slave-holders"
to "better secure [their slaves] in ignorance and wretchedness, to work their
[masters'] farms and dig their mines, and thus on enriching the Christians
with their blood and groans. (11)
As more and more eloquent black voices joined the debate, the American Colonization Society lost support of those people it hoped to help the most. Additionally, these articulate voices refuted the perceived inferiority of African Americans.
The American Colonization Society actually succeeded on two fronts. Even with the resistance at home, the American Colonization Society successfully planted a colony in Liberia and continued in diminishing existence until 1910 (American Colonization Society). The colony adopted the motto “The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here” and named the capital Monrovia after President Monroe who provided the initial support for the ACS (Jones 27). Prior to the Civil War, more than ten thousand free blacks immigrated to Liberia. However, this was less than 1 percent of the African American population in the United States. The tensions at home inflamed and the growth of the black free and slave populations was larger than the exodus of free blacks. While the ACS did not succeed in its goal to immigrate large numbers to Africa, it precipitated a major victory in American history-- the emancipation of the slaves. Through the emigration debate, the free African Americans’ position was refined and equality espoused. By 1850, most African Americans had decided that America was now there home. As orators honed their skills, the abolitionist cause grew and the blacks’ mental equality confirmed through the likes of Walker and Garner. The second and larger American Colonization Society success occurred when President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.
Works Cited
"American Colonization Society." Denison University - Home. Web. 24 Jan. 2012.
Apap, Chris. “Let No Man of Us Budge One Step.” Early American Literature 46.2 (2011): 319- 50. Print.
"Declaration of Independence - Text Transcript." National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 28 Jan. 2012.
Guyatt, Nicholas. "The Outskirts of Our Happiness: Race and the Lure of Colonization in the Early Republic.” Journal of American History, 95.4 (2009): 986-1011. Print.
Jones, Catherine. “The American Colonization Society.” Cobblestone. 17.6 (1996):26-30. Print.
Kahrl, Andrew. To Liberate From An "Anomalous Condition" Or "Secure In Ignorance And Wretchedness"? Reassessing the Intellectual Origins of the American Colonization Society.” Liberian Studies Journal 34.2 (2009): 1-15. Print.
Whether these men were viewed as heroes or radical revolutionaries depended largely upon geography. To Northerners in favor of ending slavery, the speeches were well received. In the South, the speeches brought death threats for the orators and movements from state legislatures making it illegal to teach slaves to read. The Southerners hoped that keeping the slaves from reading these impassioned arguments would prevent the uprisings that were being suggested. The few uprisings were met with excessive retribution. However, increasingly Southern slaves sought whatever means were available to leave the South. For some, this was escape through the Underground Railroad. Others sought to purchase their freedom and either flee to the North or attempt to return to Africa. The overriding challenge thought was that in the South, slavery was thriving and hopelessness was increasing.
When Jefferson and the Founding Fathers penned the famous words “we hold these truths self evident, that all men are created equal” they did not mean all men (Declaration of Independence). Had the Founding Fathers’ concept of natural rights included the slaves as well, Jefferson’s comments in 1801 stating the need to find a “receptacle” location for freed slaves would have been unnecessary (Guyatt 3). Because however prejudice and economics precluded freedom for all in the Constitution, most historians trace the concept of the American Colonization Society (ACS) to that letter written by Jefferson to Monroe. The motivation was not benevolent, but rather stemmed from concern about the increasing number of free blacks and the apparently insurmountable prejudice that stood in the way of equality for all races (Kahrl 1). By 1810, the idea of emigration was growing, and politics was creating a strange alliance. Slave owners in the upper South fearing rebellion sought to diminish the number of free blacks (Kahrl 5). Northern whites who viewed blacks as inferior wanted to reduce the freemen’s numbers fearing immoral behaviors (Kahrl 3). Philanthropic campaigners as well viewed emigration as a way to solve multiple problems (Kahrl 4). As the nation struggled to resolve the contradiction at the very core of her foundation, Rev. Robert Finley, a Presbyterian minister, founded the ACS as “a peaceful solution to the emerging crisis of slavery” (Kahrl 2). Unfortunately, the ACS did not prevent a civil war or produce large-scale emigration. The chief consequence of the ACS was the debate it sparked which contributed to the end of slavery in America.
In theory, the American Colonization Society would resolve the issue facing the new nation and correct a moral wrong committed by our nation. Ideologically this would duplicate the settlement of America; those persecuted would receive permission and aid to relocate to another continent and develop a colony based upon self-determined standards. Just as this idea had allowed the English to purge Great Britain of Catholics and Quakers, Americans could eliminate the contradictory growing free African American population living in a country dependent upon slavery for economic prosperity. Many important Americans including a past, present, and future presidents endorsed the ACS: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe and Lincoln (Jones 26). Kahrl concludes “supporters argued that the two races simply could not live together as equals in peace” and colonization avoided an inevitable conflict (9). Some Christians saw this as a way to evangelize Africa while others felt that it was only fair to return the kidnapped Africans to their homeland (Jones 26). However, the righteous motives of all these groups were not convincing enough to lead to success.
Initially it appeared the ACS would succeed. Ironically, an association of Chesapeake Maryland slaveholders provided the first funding and “ideological support” (Kahrl 7). The ACS then quickly received $100,000 from the federal government and large amounts of additional private aid (Kahrl 8). In 1820, the first ship sailed to West Africa (American Colonization Society). Southern Blacks subjected to intense prejudice “resigned themselves to colonization” as their only hope (Jones 26). Unfortunately, this first group of emigrants met with disaster when one-fourth of the group died of yellow fever within three weeks and the survivors reluctantly relocated to another locality (American Colonization Society). Colonization proved as difficult for the first Americans returning to Africa as it was for the first Europeans arriving in the Americas. At first, they fought with natives, but eventually were able to reach agreements for settlement (American Colonization Society). Perhaps if the initial emigrations had been more successful, the ensuing resistance in America would not have escalated.
At home, the ACS and idea of emigration met resistance from various groups of whites and colonization as a solution to this American problem only became a catalyst to greater unrest. The American Colonization Society was simply an unacceptable solution to the problem of slavery to numerous groups. Guyatt states “historians have usually regarded African colonization as straight forwardly racist, the culmination of attempts to fix blacks as permanently inferior and unequal to whites” (2). Abolitionists believed this was simply an attempt by slave owners to eliminate the problem of free slaves and thereby continue the policy of slavery. Some believed oppression by whites caused the problems of African Americans. Eliminating the institution of slavery created an environment for the race to develop. Therefore, the emigration of the freemen was unjust because it did not allow them the opportunities for advancement offered in America (Jones 26). Further, the institution of slavery would continue. As the easy solution of emigration met white resistance, free black voices joined the debate.
Free African American voices called for resistance to emigration. In 1827, Allen recanted his original support of the ACS in the Freeman’s Journal stating that as African-Americans had “watered with our tears and our blood” and because of this hard work American “is now our mother country” and homeland (Apap 9). Increasingly, Northern Free Blacks lead by leaders like Walker and Douglass believed that they were now Americans and that if they simply refused to leave they would be able to force the eventual end to slavery (Guyatt 26). Kahrl states:
David Walker, in his Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829),
condemned the ACS as nothing more than attempt by "a gang of slave-holders"
to "better secure [their slaves] in ignorance and wretchedness, to work their
[masters'] farms and dig their mines, and thus on enriching the Christians
with their blood and groans. (11)
As more and more eloquent black voices joined the debate, the American Colonization Society lost support of those people it hoped to help the most. Additionally, these articulate voices refuted the perceived inferiority of African Americans.
The American Colonization Society actually succeeded on two fronts. Even with the resistance at home, the American Colonization Society successfully planted a colony in Liberia and continued in diminishing existence until 1910 (American Colonization Society). The colony adopted the motto “The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here” and named the capital Monrovia after President Monroe who provided the initial support for the ACS (Jones 27). Prior to the Civil War, more than ten thousand free blacks immigrated to Liberia. However, this was less than 1 percent of the African American population in the United States. The tensions at home inflamed and the growth of the black free and slave populations was larger than the exodus of free blacks. While the ACS did not succeed in its goal to immigrate large numbers to Africa, it precipitated a major victory in American history-- the emancipation of the slaves. Through the emigration debate, the free African Americans’ position was refined and equality espoused. By 1850, most African Americans had decided that America was now there home. As orators honed their skills, the abolitionist cause grew and the blacks’ mental equality confirmed through the likes of Walker and Garner. The second and larger American Colonization Society success occurred when President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.
Works Cited
"American Colonization Society." Denison University - Home. Web. 24 Jan. 2012.
Apap, Chris. “Let No Man of Us Budge One Step.” Early American Literature 46.2 (2011): 319- 50. Print.
"Declaration of Independence - Text Transcript." National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 28 Jan. 2012.
Guyatt, Nicholas. "The Outskirts of Our Happiness: Race and the Lure of Colonization in the Early Republic.” Journal of American History, 95.4 (2009): 986-1011. Print.
Jones, Catherine. “The American Colonization Society.” Cobblestone. 17.6 (1996):26-30. Print.
Kahrl, Andrew. To Liberate From An "Anomalous Condition" Or "Secure In Ignorance And Wretchedness"? Reassessing the Intellectual Origins of the American Colonization Society.” Liberian Studies Journal 34.2 (2009): 1-15. Print.